Despite the importance of the definition of ‘ musical instrument’ for theoretical and practical issues in the field of musicology (such as classification, orchestration, and education), the available definitions such as those offered by Von Hornbostel (1933), Lysloff and Matson (1985), and Bielawiski (1979), seem to be flawed, since they lack some of the logical requirements that a standard definition should meet. Specifically, these definitions need to be revised and reformed as they are not exclusive and do not clearly indicate what the most general ontological kind, class, or category of the objects ‘ musical instrument’ belongs to. The present article, thus, deals with the issue of what a ‘ musical instrument’ is, and it aims to provide a comprehensive definition of musical instrument, meeting all the logical requirements of a standard definition. To this end, the qualitative method of logical or conceptual analysis is used, as one of the main methods of deductive sciences and one of the most important methods of defining scientific concepts. The article also introduces the defining elements of ‘ musical instrument’ through sequential analyses. In the first analysis, ‘ musical instrument’ is ontologically recognized as an object of a technical system. In the second and third analyses, each of the specific differences distinguishing it from the other technical systems is identified: functional properties and design (or structural) properties. These two analyses are performed based on the 2003 version of the ICE-theory of functions, considering the multiple user roles and the functional modeling theory, respectively. Finally, a standard definition is formulated using conceptual analysis. According to this definition, a musical instrument features the following three characteristics. (1) With respect to its ontological kind, it is a technical artifact of a specified technical system. (2) With respect to its function, according to the justifiable belief of the composer, it has the capacity to produce sound with certain pitch and timbre in accordance with a particular aesthetic experience and function for the composition as a whole and its effect on the listener. AcA cording to the justifiable belief of the performer, it has the ability to transform scripts into sound with certain pitch and timbre. And, in the case of the listener, it has the ability to create aesthetic experience by producing sounds with certain pitch and timbre. In addition, a musical instrument has the capacity to produce sound with certain pitch and timbre as its proper function is taken into account by d-agents; it is also constantly (i. e., not as an exception, for trial, or fun) used by u-agents as an instrument with the above capability by u-agents. In other words, some pieces are made or arranged by the composer, some other pieces are performed by the performer, the way of working with it (its use plan) is taught, and the sounds produced by it are recognized as distinct with appropriate aesthetic properties by the listener. (3) And finally, with respect to its structure, a musical instrument is a given normal configuration that consists of an energy element, control element, and sound element.

Background and Aim: Many aspects and features of auditory system can be improved by musical training. This study aimed to investigate the effects of a stringed musical instrument playing course on temporal resolution and temporal fine structure (TFS) processing. Methods: This analytical cross-sectional study was conducted on 44 normal-hearing adults aged 20–, 40 years divided to two groups. The first group included 22 stringed musical instruments players (13 males) with at least three years of experience, and the second group were 22 non-players (13 males). The random gap detection test (RGDT) was used to measure temporal resolution aspect of hearing. For TFS processing, latest version of temporal fine structure-adaptive frequency (TFS-AF) test was used. Results: The TFS-AF results showed no statistically significant difference between groups in different interaural phase differences (IPDs). The RGDT results showed significant differences between groups at 500, 1000 and 2000 Hz, but not at 4000 Hz. Spearman correlation test results showed no statistically significant correlation between the results of TFS-AF and RGDT. Conclusion: musical training has no effect on TFS processing but considerably enhances gap detection ability. Their underlying mechanisms for TFS processing and gap detection are different.

In order to study and survey ancient civilizations, the role of musical instruments of these civilizations must be reviewed based on existing monuments that contain musical inscriptions. To study common musical instruments in two neighboring civilizations can help to clarify parts of the musical culture of the research. Ancient civilizations of Elam and Mesopotamia were connected and affected each other throughout the years in terms of culture, politics, and religion. Music has a special position in Mesopotamia so that there are lots of frescos showing people in power together with musicians on the palaces’ walls. The unique role of music in Mesopotamia is such that queens were buried with musicians and their instruments. On the other hand, only written texts about music are obtained from this civilization, the oldest of them dating back to the second millennium BC. Music and musicians are also present in various scenes in Elam. The discoveries so far show musical instruments and music in religious ceremonies, wars, and celebrations. Due to limited excavations conducted in Elam compared with Mesopotamia, one cannot certainty talk about the music and instruments used in the musical culture of Elam. Studying musical instruments in Elam and Mesopotamia can provide a better understanding about music in Elam. Harp is a very important melodic instrument in the ancient world and had a vital role and permanent presence in the music of Mesopotamia and Elam. This musical instrument can be seen continuously on ancient monuments from Elamite and Mesopotamia civilizations. The first signs of the presence of harp in vertical form are in the fourth millennium BC, in these two areas and the changing process of harps from simple to complex arcuate shape is traceable. Also, the process of change in the resonance box of the instrument and the decorations on the tailpiece bar that may have associations with the religious beliefs of Assyrians are other issues to investigate in the field. This instrument is played with a plectrum, and this can distinguish horizontal and vertical harps. The horizontal harps emerged in the early second millennium BC, without an indication of the presence of simple shapes. It has then-in the course of its life in the region-experienced structural changes. This musical instrument entered the Elamite musical culture in the first millennium BC. Horizontal harps used in Elamite musical culture underwent some structural changes. These types of harps have a significant difference with the Assyrian types. Horizontal harp was used for solo or Duet in the musical culture of Assyrians while in Elamite culture, they used it in Orchestra. Based on ancient artifacts from the civilizations of Mesopotamia and Elam, the instruments mentioned in two musical cultures will be analyzed and then compared.

To evaluate and compare the properties of White Mulberry wood to some other wood, acoustical and musical features of the free vibration on free-free bars in longitudinal-radial and longitudinal-tangential planes were investigated. Ten pieces of each species of White Mulberry, Maple, Beech, Poplar, Caucasian oak, Pine Silvestris, Walnut and Japanese Zelkova with dimensions 20 (tangential)×20 (radial)×360 (length) mm devoid of any appearance defects such as cracks, knots, rots, etc. according to ISO 3129 standard were selected and values of dynamic modulus of elasticity, damping factor, acoustic coefficient and sound velocity were measured and compared with each other. The results showed that the acoustic properties of White Mulberry were of inferior quality to other species of the research, especially for Tar construction. While according to criteria of investigation in this research Maple wood and Pine Silvestris species have the best properties in the construction of Tar. It can be claimed, in general, that if the ignoring the timbre of White Mulberry wood, the other investigated species of this study have more suitable acoustic properties than White Mulberry in musical instruments’ construct.

"TOMBAK'' is the most important percussive instrument in classical music of Iran. This instrument is also known as: tonbak, tompak, donbak and dombak. About the physical structure of this instrument it worth is mentioning that two types of materials are common for the construction of the body: wood and metal, which the wooden type of the Tombak is customary in classical music and the metal type is more usual to use in folk music. The upper part of the instrument is covered up with animal’ s skin such as cow or camel. The performance of the Tombak involves both hands playing the same role and complementing each other’ s motions. Although it is common to use the cutaneous part of the instrument as the main source of getting sounds, the wooden part is also use for getting different timbre of sounds. Influential cultures which have influenced the new generations of playing Tombak (from the rhythmic aspects) are the rhythmic system of Indian, Arabian and Turkish classical music. The main problem facing Tombak players which causes failure to achieve desired result, is the lack of a coherent system in Rhythmic-Metric structures which according to the non-metric structure of this music, is not unexpected. Based on experiences and their perceptions, in comparison with other instruments, Tombak players usually play the role of a companion. The wide range of technical changes in Tombak has increased the importance of its quality and role in being a companion than before. The procedure of this changes from the Qajar period up to now can be analyzed in notation and also its (Tombak) repertory which are mentioned in samples. In order to achieve good and measurable results as in other branches of science, we can use successful experiences in this field (which emerged in every way) and after reviewing the data, a progressive result can solve these problems. The researches in this paper is descriptive. The original information and research data are obtained by the author through audio transcription and auditory audio from available works. The statistical society in this research include all the audio works companioned by Tombak in the classical music of Iran. Sampling is non-random and selective. In selecting pieces the author also used his personal experiences. A list of all those who have had significant on the style of playing Tombak and accompaniment, was provide and their works have been reviewed. Artists who have been examined, explained as fallow whom are separated by their style of playing: Hossein Tehrani, Mohammad Esmaeili – Naser Farhang Far, Jamshid Mohebi – Amir naser Eftetah, Bahman Rajabi – Jamshid Shemirani – Arzhang Kamkar – Pezhman Haddadi – Navid Afghah. The final results of the article are included as suggested rhythm and Tombak in the Tombak’ s accompaniment with other Iranian instruments, in the field of timing and form (shape) of the Tombak entrance at the beginning of the pieces, the figures, the rhythmic figure of tombak executive and other instruments, the techniques used by tombak, the bases of improvisation or not, the quantitative and qualitative of rhythm, the presence and role of borrowing divisions, Tombak rhythm line ratio with melody will happen in the final section and tempo.

Modern (theoretical) physics seems to be in deep crisis today as many of its core aspects are not empirically well-confirmed. Heated exchanges among physicists on the scientific status of physical theories with little or, at best, a tenuous connection to possible experimental tests is highly visible in the popular scientific literature. Some physicists (e.g., Carroll 2014, 2019; Ijjas et al., 2017) argue that science must discard empirical testability as one of its defining properties and the highly explanatory theories of present-day physics should be exempted from experimental testing, while others (e.g., Ellis & Silk 2014) spot in these arguments (for softening the testability or falsifiability requirement for modern physics) a dangerous tendency to undermine science. The philosopher of science who naturally draws most attention in these current debates is Karl Popper (1902-1994). His views, however, are often misrepresented in these debates. The prime objective of this paper is to explain how a more enlightened perspective on the ongoing debates can be obtained by a careful scrutiny of the Popperian criterion of falsifiability. As a first step in achieving this objective we will analyze the two major (conceptual) failures on which the current controversies rest. Our next step will be examining the controversial string theory to see whether the criteria of falsifiability is a ‘blunt instrument’ for determining its scientific status.

In this work, eigen modes and eigen frequencies of the body (sound board and sound box) of the setar, a persian stringed musical instrument, are studied. Eigen modes of the sound board and the whole body, neglecting the holes, are calculated independently and analyzed comparatively. This scheme of separate modal analyses for different parts of the setar will lead to the understanding of their individual roles in the overall output sound. In categorizing and assessment of sound quality of musical instruments, the study of characteristics of frequency response function (ERF) is important. In case of stringed musical instruments like setar, of the defining parameters are the first peak of FRF and its location. This first peak usually coincides with first air eigen frequency which in the present research occurs at about 377 Hz. Thus, all the other eigen modes like 588 Hz and 740 Hz, construct the rest of the FRF. Also, the effects of such as sound board thickness, wood material properties shape of sound box and other structural features of setar on two value of eigon frequencies can assessed. Furthermore, analysis of the aero-acoustic pressure contours and the eigen modes of the setar structure (sound board and box) and air allows the nature (air, structure or coupled air-structure) of a acoustic mode to be determined.

Purpose: We compare the prevalence of glaucoma in professional wind versus non‑ wind instrument players in the Philadelphia Orchestra. Visual field changes in individuals with glaucoma and glaucoma suspects were evaluated, and the results were correlated with cumulative practice time. Methods: In this cross‑ sectional, observational study, fifty‑ one Philadelphia Orchestra musicians were enrolled and categorized as wind or non‑ wind instrument players. All study participants underwent screening fundus photography. Participants with optic discs suspicious for glaucoma underwent further evaluation, including standard automated visual field perimetry and a comprehensive eye examination by a glaucoma specialist. Results: Of the 51 musicians enrolled, 9 of the 21 wind instrument players (43%) and 8 of the 30 non‑ wind instrument players (27%) were suspected of developing glaucoma in at least one eye (P = 0. 25), with examinations performed on 12 of the 17 returning musicians (71%) for further confirmation. Wind instrument players exhibited significantly higher Octopus visual field mean defect scores (1. 08 ± 1. 5 dB) than non‑ wind instrument players (− 0. 43 ± 0. 7 dB; P < 0. 001). There was a significant association between cumulative hours playing wind instruments and visual field mean defect (P < 0. 001). Conclusion: Among members of the Philadelphia Orchestra, the difference in prevalence of glaucoma suspicious optic discs between wind and non‑ wind instrument players was not significant. The clinical significance of the greater visual field mean defect found in wind instrument players, and the association between the degree of visual field mean defect and the cumulative practice‑ time of playing wind instruments, needs further investigation.

Safavid and Ottoman governments were contemporary to each other and had many cultural and artistic commonalities. One of these commonalities is in the field of music, which is worthy of investigation from various aspects. In this research, with descriptive-analytical, historical and comparative methods, the differences and similarities of Safavid and Ottoman music in the stringed instruments found in the paintings have been studied. Paintings, as the only visual documents, show the changes and diversity of instruments better than any other source. In the field of stringed instruments, the images of the Safavid and Ottoman eras have similarities and differences. These two periods are common in some musical instruments and have been influenced by each other. Common stringed instruments such as harp, oud, tambur and fiddle are depicted in the paintings of the Safavid and Ottoman eras. In the paintings of the Ottoman period, stringed instruments such as Qopuz and Shahroud can be seen, which are not present in the paintings of the Safavid period. Based on the structure of the instruments in the paintings as well as the historical precedence and delay of these images, it can be concluded that the influence of the Ottomans was greater than the Iranians, but more research is needed to achieve the certainty of this achievement.